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Glossary

Terminology reference for intervals, chords, scales, rhythm, form, and advanced theory vocabulary.

INTERVALS

INTERVAL	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Perfect unison (P1)	0 semitones. Same pitch.	C-C
Diminished second (d2)	0 semitones. Enharmonic to unison.	C-D𝄫
Minor second (m2)	1 semitone. Half step. Dissonant.	C-D♭
Augmented unison (A1)	1 semitone. Chromatic half step.	C-C♯
Major second (M2)	2 semitones. Whole step.	C-D
Diminished third (d3)	2 semitones. Enharmonic to M2.	C-E𝄫
Minor third (m3)	3 semitones. Sad, dark.	C-E♭
Augmented second (A2)	3 semitones. Exotic, augmented.	C-D♯
Major third (M3)	4 semitones. Bright, happy.	C-E
Diminished fourth (d4)	4 semitones. Enharmonic to M3.	C-F♭
Perfect fourth (P4)	5 semitones. Open, stable.	C-F
Augmented third (A3)	5 semitones. Enharmonic to P4.	C-E♯
Diminished fifth (d5)	6 semitones. Tritone. Unstable.	C-G♭
Augmented fourth (A4)	6 semitones. Tritone. "Devil's interval."	C-F♯
Perfect fifth (P5)	7 semitones. Most consonant after octave.	C-G
Diminished sixth (d6)	7 semitones. Enharmonic to P5.	C-A𝄫
Minor sixth (m6)	8 semitones. Bittersweet.	C-A♭
Augmented fifth (A5)	8 semitones. Enharmonic to m6.	C-G♯
Major sixth (M6)	9 semitones. Warm, open.	C-A
Diminished seventh (d7)	9 semitones. Enharmonic to M6.	C-B𝄫
Minor seventh (m7)	10 semitones. Bluesy, unresolved.	C-B♭
Augmented sixth (A6)	10 semitones. Enharmonic to m7.	C-A♯
Major seventh (M7)	11 semitones. Tense, leading.	C-B
Diminished octave (d8)	11 semitones. Enharmonic to M7.	C-C♭'
Perfect octave (P8)	12 semitones. Perfect consonance.	C-C'
Augmented seventh (A7)	12 semitones. Enharmonic to P8.	C-B♯
Minor ninth (m9)	13 semitones. Octave + m2. Sharp, tense.	C-D♭'
Major ninth (M9)	14 semitones. Octave + M2. Open, bright.	C-D'
Augmented ninth (A9)	15 semitones. Octave + A2. "Sharp 9."	C-D♯'
Minor tenth (m10)	15 semitones. Octave + m3.	C-E♭'
Major tenth (M10)	16 semitones. Octave + M3.	C-E'
Perfect eleventh (P11)	17 semitones. Octave + P4.	C-F'
Augmented eleventh (A11)	18 semitones. Octave + A4. Lydian color.	C-F♯'
Diminished twelfth (d12)	18 semitones. Octave + d5.	C-G♭'
Perfect twelfth (P12)	19 semitones. Octave + P5.	C-G'
Minor thirteenth (m13)	20 semitones. Octave + m6.	C-A♭'
Major thirteenth (M13)	21 semitones. Octave + M6.	C-A'
Minor fourteenth (m14)	22 semitones. Octave + m7.	C-B♭'
Major fourteenth (M14)	23 semitones. Octave + M7.	C-B'
Double octave (P15)	24 semitones. Two octaves.	C-C''

TRIADS

TYPE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Major triad	R-M3-P5. Bright, stable, resolved.	C-E-G (C)
Major 1st inversion	M3 in bass. Lighter, mobile.	E-G-C (C/E)
Major 2nd inversion	P5 in bass. Unstable, needs resolution.	G-C-E (C/G)
Minor triad	R-m3-P5. Dark, sad, introspective.	C-E♭-G (Cm)
Minor 1st inversion	m3 in bass.	E♭-G-C (Cm/E♭)
Minor 2nd inversion	P5 in bass.	G-C-E♭ (Cm/G)
Diminished triad	R-m3-d5. Tense, unstable, leading.	C-E♭-G♭ (C°)
Diminished 1st inversion	m3 in bass.	E♭-G♭-C (C°/E♭)
Diminished 2nd inversion	d5 in bass.	G♭-C-E♭ (C°/G♭)
Augmented triad	R-M3-A5. Symmetrical, whole-tone, unresolved.	C-E-G♯ (C+)
Augmented 1st inversion	M3 in bass. Same sound, different spelling.	E-G♯-C (C+/E)
Augmented 2nd inversion	A5 in bass. Same sound, different spelling.	G♯-C-E (C+/G♯)
Suspended second	R-M2-P5. Open, ambiguous.	C-D-G (Csus2)
Suspended fourth	R-P4-P5. Tension seeking resolution to 3rd.	C-F-G (Csus4)
Suspended 4/2	R-M2-P4. Both suspensions. Quartal.	C-D-F (Csus2/4)
Power chord (5)	R-P5 only. No 3rd. Neutral, heavy.	C-G (C5)
Flat five	R-M3-d5. Major with lowered 5th.	C-E-G♭ (C♭5)
Phrygian chord	R-m2-P5. Root + Phrygian color.	C-D♭-G
Lydian chord	R-A4-P5. Root + Lydian color.	C-F♯-G
Quartal triad	Stacked P4s. Open, modern.	C-F-B♭
Quintal triad	Stacked P5s. Very open.	C-G-D'

SEVENTH CHORDS

TYPE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Major seventh	Maj triad + M7. Smooth, dreamy, jazz.	C-E-G-B (Cmaj7)
Major 7th - 1st inv	3rd in bass.	E-G-B-C (Cmaj7/E)
Major 7th - 2nd inv	5th in bass.	G-B-C-E (Cmaj7/G)
Major 7th - 3rd inv	7th in bass.	B-C-E-G (Cmaj7/B)
Dominant seventh	Maj triad + m7. Tension to tonic.	G-B-D-F (G7)
Dom 7th - 1st inv	3rd in bass.	B-D-F-G (G7/B)
Dom 7th - 2nd inv	5th in bass.	D-F-G-B (G7/D)
Dom 7th - 3rd inv	7th in bass. Most tension.	F-G-B-D (G7/F)
Minor seventh	Min triad + m7. Mellow, jazz standard.	C-E♭-G-B♭ (Cm7)
Min 7th - 1st inv	3rd in bass.	E♭-G-B♭-C (Cm7/E♭)
Min 7th - 2nd inv	5th in bass.	G-B♭-C-E♭ (Cm7/G)
Min 7th - 3rd inv	7th in bass.	B♭-C-E♭-G (Cm7/B♭)
Minor-major seventh	Min triad + M7. Dark, tense, cinematic.	C-E♭-G-B (CmM7)
MinMaj 7th - 1st inv	3rd in bass.	E♭-G-B-C (CmM7/E♭)
MinMaj 7th - 2nd inv	5th in bass.	G-B-C-E♭ (CmM7/G)
MinMaj 7th - 3rd inv	7th in bass.	B-C-E♭-G (CmM7/B)
Half-diminished seventh	Dim triad + m7. Yearning, unresolved.	C-E♭-G♭-B♭ (Cø7)
Half-dim 7th - 1st inv	3rd in bass.	E♭-G♭-B♭-C (Cø7/E♭)
Half-dim 7th - 2nd inv	5th in bass.	G♭-B♭-C-E♭ (Cø7/G♭)
Half-dim 7th - 3rd inv	7th in bass.	B♭-C-E♭-G♭ (Cø7/B♭)
Diminished seventh	Dim triad + d7. Symmetrical (m3 stack). Very tense.	C-E♭-G♭-B𝄫 (C°7)
Dim 7th - 1st inv	Enharmonic respelling changes root.	E♭-G♭-B𝄫-C
Dim 7th - 2nd inv	Each inversion = different dim7 chord.	G♭-B𝄫-C-E♭
Dim 7th - 3rd inv	Only 3 unique dim7 sonorities exist.	B𝄫-C-E♭-G♭
Augmented major seventh	Aug triad + M7. Lydian, whole-tone adjacent.	C-E-G♯-B (Cmaj7♯5)
Augmented seventh	Aug triad + m7. Whole-tone dominant.	C-E-G♯-B♭ (C7♯5)
Dominant 7th flat 5	R-M3-d5-m7. Lydian dominant.	C-E-G♭-B♭ (C7♭5)
Seventh sus4	R-P4-P5-m7. Suspended dominant.	C-F-G-B♭ (C7sus4)
Seventh sus2	R-M2-P5-m7. Open dominant.	C-D-G-B♭ (C7sus2)
Major 7th sus4	R-P4-P5-M7.	C-F-G-B (Cmaj7sus4)
Major 7th sus2	R-M2-P5-M7.	C-D-G-B (Cmaj7sus2)
Diminished major seventh	Dim triad + M7. Rare, chromatic.	C-E♭-G♭-B (C°maj7)

EXTENDED & ALTERED CHORDS

TYPE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Add9	Triad + M9 (no 7th). Open, bright.	C-E-G-D' (Cadd9)
Minor add9	Min triad + M9.	C-E♭-G-D' (Cm(add9))
Add11	Triad + P11 (no 7th, no 9th).	C-E-G-F' (Cadd11)
Add♯11	Triad + A11. Lydian color.	C-E-G-F♯' (Cadd♯11)
Add13	Triad + M13 (no 7th).	C-E-G-A' (Cadd13)
Major sixth	Maj triad + M6. Stable, vintage.	C-E-G-A (C6)
Minor sixth	Min triad + M6. Jazz minor.	C-E♭-G-A (Cm6)
Six-nine	Maj triad + M6 + M9.	C-E-G-A-D' (C6/9)
Minor six-nine	Min triad + M6 + M9.	C-E♭-G-A-D' (Cm6/9)
Major ninth	Maj7 + M9. Lush, sophisticated.	C-E-G-B-D' (Cmaj9)
Dominant ninth	Dom7 + M9. Extended dominant.	C-E-G-B♭-D' (C9)
Minor ninth	Min7 + M9. Standard jazz minor.	C-E♭-G-B♭-D' (Cm9)
Minor-major ninth	MinMaj7 + M9.	C-E♭-G-B-D' (CmM9)
Dominant ♭9	Dom7 + m9. Altered, tense.	C-E-G-B♭-D♭' (C7♭9)
Dominant ♯9	Dom7 + A9. "Hendrix chord." Bluesy.	C-E-G-B♭-D♯' (C7♯9)
Dominant ♭9♯9	Both altered 9ths.	C-E-G-B♭-D♭-D♯ (C7♭9♯9)
Half-dim ninth	ø7 + M9.	C-E♭-G♭-B♭-D' (Cø9)
Diminished ninth	°7 + M9. Passing chord.	C-E♭-G♭-B𝄫-D' (C°9)
Augmented ninth	Aug7 + M9.	C-E-G♯-B♭-D' (C9♯5)
Dominant 9sus4	R-P4-P5-m7-M9.	C-F-G-B♭-D' (C9sus4)
Major eleventh	Maj9 + P11. Often omit 3rd.	C-E-G-B-D-F' (Cmaj11)
Dominant eleventh	Dom9 + P11. Often omit 3rd.	C-E-G-B♭-D-F' (C11)
Minor eleventh	Min9 + P11.	C-E♭-G-B♭-D-F' (Cm11)
Dominant ♯11	Dom7 + ♯11. Lydian dominant.	C-E-G-B♭-F♯' (C7♯11)
Dominant 9♯11	Dom9 + ♯11.	C-E-G-B♭-D-F♯' (C9♯11)
Major 9♯11	Maj9 + ♯11. Lydian.	C-E-G-B-D-F♯' (Cmaj9♯11)
Minor 11♭5	ø7 + 9 + 11.	C-E♭-G♭-B♭-D-F' (Cm11♭5)
Dominant 11sus4	No 3rd, has 4th.	C-F-G-B♭-D-F' (C11sus)
Major thirteenth	Full extension. Often voiced selectively.	C-E-G-B-D-F-A' (Cmaj13)
Dominant thirteenth	Standard dominant extension.	C-E-G-B♭-D-F-A' (C13)
Minor thirteenth	Full minor extension.	C-E♭-G-B♭-D-F-A' (Cm13)
Dominant ♭13	Dom7 + ♭13. Altered dominant.	C-E-G-B♭-A♭' (C7♭13)
Dominant ♯9♭13	Altered tensions combined.	C-E-G-B♭-D♯-A♭' (C7♯9♭13)
Dominant ♭9♭13	Maximum altered tension.	C-E-G-B♭-D♭-A♭' (C7♭9♭13)
Dominant 13♯11	Lydian dominant extended.	C-E-G-B♭-D-F♯-A' (C13♯11)
Dominant 13sus4	13 with suspended 4th.	C-F-G-B♭-D-A' (C13sus4)
Altered dominant (7alt)	Dom7 + any/all: ♭9, ♯9, ♯11, ♭13.	C-E-G♯-B♭-D♭-A♭ (C7alt)

SCALES & MODES

SCALE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Ionian (major)	W-W-H-W-W-W-H. Bright, stable.	C-D-E-F-G-A-B
Dorian	W-H-W-W-W-H-W. Minor with ♮6. Jazz minor.	D-E-F-G-A-B-C
Phrygian	H-W-W-W-H-W-W. Minor with ♭2. Spanish.	E-F-G-A-B-C-D
Lydian	W-W-W-H-W-W-H. Major with ♯4. Dreamy.	F-G-A-B-C-D-E
Mixolydian	W-W-H-W-W-H-W. Major with ♭7. Bluesy.	G-A-B-C-D-E-F
Aeolian (natural minor)	W-H-W-W-H-W-W. Sad, dark.	A-B-C-D-E-F-G
Locrian	H-W-W-H-W-W-W. Diminished. Unstable.	B-C-D-E-F-G-A
Harmonic minor	Natural minor + ♯7. Classical minor.	A-B-C-D-E-F-G♯
Locrian ♮6	2nd mode of harm. minor.	B-C-D-E-F-G♯-A
Ionian ♯5	3rd mode of harm. minor.	C-D-E-F-G♯-A-B
Dorian ♯4 (Romanian)	4th mode of harm. minor.	D-E-F-G♯-A-B-C
Phrygian dominant	5th mode of harm. minor. Flamenco.	E-F-G♯-A-B-C-D
Lydian ♯2	6th mode of harm. minor.	F-G♯-A-B-C-D-E
Super Locrian 𝄫7	7th mode of harm. minor.	G♯-A-B-C-D-E-F
Melodic minor (ascending)	Minor with ♯6 and ♯7.	A-B-C-D-E-F♯-G♯
Dorian ♭2 (Phrygian ♯6)	2nd mode of mel. minor.	B-C-D-E-F♯-G♯-A
Lydian augmented	3rd mode of mel. minor.	C-D-E-F♯-G♯-A-B
Lydian dominant (Overtone)	4th mode of mel. minor.	D-E-F♯-G♯-A-B-C
Mixolydian ♭6 (Hindu)	5th mode of mel. minor.	E-F♯-G♯-A-B-C-D
Locrian ♮2 (Half-diminished)	6th mode of mel. minor.	F♯-G♯-A-B-C-D-E
Altered (Super Locrian)	7th mode of mel. minor. All tensions altered.	G♯-A-B-C-D-E-F♯
Harmonic major	Major with ♭6.	C-D-E-F-G-A♭-B
Dorian ♭5	2nd mode of harm. major.	D-E-F-G-A♭-B-C
Phrygian ♭4	3rd mode of harm. major.	E-F-G-A♭-B-C-D
Lydian ♭3 (Melodic minor ♯4)	4th mode of harm. major.	F-G-A♭-B-C-D-E
Mixolydian ♭2	5th mode of harm. major.	G-A♭-B-C-D-E-F
Lydian augmented ♯2	6th mode of harm. major.	A♭-B-C-D-E-F-G
Locrian 𝄫7	7th mode of harm. major.	B-C-D-E-F-G-A♭
Double harmonic major	H-A2-H-W-H-A2-H. Middle Eastern.	C-D♭-E-F-G-A♭-B
Lydian ♯2 ♯6	2nd mode of double harm.	D♭-E-F-G-A♭-B-C
Ultra Phrygian	3rd mode of double harm.	E-F-G-A♭-B-C-D♭
Hungarian minor	4th mode of double harm.	F-G-A♭-B-C-D♭-E
Oriental	5th mode of double harm.	G-A♭-B-C-D♭-E-F
Ionian ♯2 ♯5	6th mode of double harm.	A♭-B-C-D♭-E-F-G
Locrian 𝄫3 𝄫7	7th mode of double harm.	B-C-D♭-E-F-G-A♭
Major pentatonic	1-2-3-5-6. Universal, folk.	C-D-E-G-A
Minor pentatonic	1-♭3-4-5-♭7. Blues, rock.	A-C-D-E-G
Suspended pentatonic (Egyptian)	1-2-4-5-♭7.	C-D-F-G-B♭
Blues major pentatonic	1-2-4-5-6.	C-D-F-G-A
Blues minor pentatonic	1-♭3-4-♭6-♭7.	C-E♭-F-A♭-B♭
Hirajoshi	1-2-♭3-5-♭6. Japanese.	C-D-E♭-G-A♭
Kumoi	1-♭2-4-5-♭6. Japanese.	C-D♭-F-G-A♭
Iwato	1-♭2-4-♭5-♭7. Japanese.	C-D♭-F-G♭-B♭
In scale	1-♭2-4-5-♭6. Japanese.	C-D♭-F-G-A♭
Yo scale	1-2-4-5-6. Japanese.	C-D-F-G-A
Pelog	1-♭2-♭3-5-♭6. Balinese (approx).	C-D♭-E♭-G-A♭
Slendro	1-2-4-5-♭7. Javanese (approx).	C-D-F-G-B♭
Whole tone	All whole steps. No tonic. Impressionist.	C-D-E-F♯-G♯-A♯
Augmented (Coltrane)	m3-H-m3-H-m3-H. Symmetrical.	C-D♯-E-G-A♭-B
Prometheus	1-2-3-♯4-6-♭7. Scriabin.	C-D-E-F♯-A-B♭
Blues scale	Minor pent + ♯4/♭5. The "blue note."	C-E♭-F-G♭-G-B♭
Major blues scale	Major pent + ♯2/♭3.	C-D-E♭-E-G-A
Tritone scale	1-♭2-3-♭5-5-♭7.	C-D♭-E-G♭-G-B♭
Diminished (whole-half)	W-H-W-H-W-H-W-H. Symmetrical.	C-D-E♭-F-G♭-A♭-A-B
Diminished (half-whole)	H-W-H-W-H-W-H-W. Dominant diminished.	C-D♭-E♭-E-F♯-G-A-B♭
Bebop dominant	Mixolydian + ♮7.	C-D-E-F-G-A-B♭-B
Bebop major	Major + ♯5.	C-D-E-F-G-G♯-A-B
Bebop minor	Dorian + ♮7.	C-D-E♭-F-G-A-B♭-B
Bebop Dorian	Dorian + ♮3.	C-D-E♭-E-F-G-A-B♭
Bebop melodic minor	Melodic minor + ♯5.	C-D-E♭-F-G-G♯-A-B
Chromatic	All 12 semitones.	C-C♯-D-D♯-E-F-F♯-G-G♯-A-A♯-B
Neapolitan major	Harm maj with ♭2.	C-D♭-E♭-F-G-A-B
Neapolitan minor	Harm min with ♭2.	C-D♭-E♭-F-G-A♭-B
Enigmatic	Verdi scale. Unusual.	C-D♭-E-F♯-G♯-A♯-B
Persian	H-A2-H-H-W-A2-H.	C-D♭-E-F-G♭-A♭-B
Arabian	W-W-H-H-W-W-W.	C-D-E-F-G♭-A♭-B♭
Jewish (Ahava Rabbah)	Same as Phrygian dominant.	C-D♭-E-F-G-A♭-B♭
Gypsy (Hungarian)	W-H-A2-H-H-A2-H.	C-D-E♭-F♯-G-A♭-B
Spanish Gypsy	Same as Phrygian dominant.	C-D♭-E-F-G-A♭-B♭
Flamenco	Phrygian dominant with ♮7.	C-D♭-E-F-G-A♭-B
Ukrainian Dorian	Dorian ♯4.	C-D-E♭-F♯-G-A-B♭
Leading whole tone	Whole tone with ♮7.	C-D-E-F♯-G♯-A♯-B
Lydian minor	Melodic minor ♯4.	C-D-E-F♯-G-A♭-B♭
Major Locrian	Locrian with ♮3.	C-D-E♭-F-G♭-A♭-B♭
Minor Locrian	Locrian ♭4.	C-D♭-E♭-F♭-G♭-A♭-B♭

CADENCES

TYPE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Perfect authentic (PAC)	V-I, both root position, tonic in soprano. Strongest closure.	G-C with C in melody
Imperfect authentic (IAC)	V-I with inversion or 3rd/5th in soprano. Weaker.	G-C with E in melody
Root position IAC	V-I root position but 3rd in soprano.	G-C, melody on E
Inverted IAC	V-I with one or both inverted.	G/B-C
Leading-tone IAC	vii°-I instead of V-I.	B°-C
Half cadence (HC)	Ends on V. Open, incomplete.	...IV-V or I-V
Phrygian half cadence	iv6-V in minor. ♭6 in bass falls to 5.	Fm/A♭-G in C minor
Lydian half cadence	II-V using ♯4 in bass.	D/F♯-G in C major
Plagal cadence	IV-I. "Amen" cadence.	F-C
Minor plagal	iv-I. Borrowed from minor.	Fm-C
Double plagal	IV/IV-IV-I. Gospel style.	B♭-F-C
Deceptive cadence	V-vi (or V-VI in minor). Surprises.	G-Am
Deceptive to IV	V-IV. Backdoor resolution.	G-F
Deceptive to ♭VI	V-♭VI. Dramatic surprise.	G-A♭
Deceptive to iii	V-iii. Rare, subtle.	G-Em
Picardy third	Minor piece ends on major I.	Cm piece ends on C major
Landini cadence	Medieval: ♭7-6-8 melodic figure.	B♭-A-C in cadence
Double leading-tone	Medieval: both ♯4 and ♯7 resolve.	F♯-B resolving to G-C
Corelli cadence	Baroque: V-I with 4-3 suspension.	G7(4-3)-C
Backdoor cadence	♭VII-I. Jazz substitute.	B♭7-C
Tritone substitution cadence	♭II7-I. Shares V7 tritone.	D♭7-C
Minor plagal (♭vi-I)	Using ♭vi borrowed chord.	A♭m-C
Evaded cadence	Expected V-I averted via voice leading.	V-IV6 or V-vii°6
Abandoned cadence	Dominant never resolves.	V-?? (new material)
Medial cadence	Interior phrase ending, not final.	Half or imperfect mid-piece
Elided cadence	End of one phrase = start of next.	Resolution serves two functions

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS

FUNCTION	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Tonic (T)	Home, stability, resolution. I, sometimes vi or iii.	I, i
Dominant (D)	Maximum tension, needs resolution. V, vii°.	V, V7, vii°
Pre-dominant (PD)	Prepares dominant. ii, IV.	ii, IV, ii°, iv
I (tonic)	Primary rest point. Strongest stability.	C in C major
ii (supertonic)	Pre-dominant. Often moves to V.	Dm in C major
iii (mediant)	Weak tonic function. Can prolong I.	Em in C major
IV (subdominant)	Pre-dominant. Away from tonic.	F in C major
V (dominant)	Primary tension. Strongest pull to I.	G in C major
vi (submediant)	Tonic substitute. Deceptive target.	Am in C major
vii° (leading tone)	Dominant function. Contains tritone.	B° in C major
V/V (secondary dominant)	Dominant of dominant. Tonicizes V.	D7 in C major
V/ii	Dominant of supertonic.	A7 in C major
V/iii	Dominant of mediant.	B7 in C major
V/IV	Dominant of subdominant.	C7 in C major (unusual)
V/vi	Dominant of submediant.	E7 in C major
vii°/V	Leading tone of V.	F♯° in C major
vii°/ii	Leading tone of ii.	C♯° in C major
vii°/iii	Leading tone of iii.	D♯° in C major
vii°/IV	Leading tone of IV.	E° in C major
vii°/vi	Leading tone of vi.	G♯° in C major
♭VII (subtonic)	Borrowed from Mixolydian/minor. Plagal.	B♭ in C major
♭VI (flat submediant)	Borrowed from minor. Dramatic.	A♭ in C major
♭III (flat mediant)	Borrowed from minor. Relative major feeling.	E♭ in C major
iv (minor subdominant)	Borrowed from minor.	Fm in C major
♭II (Neapolitan)	Chromatic pre-dominant.	D♭ in C major
Tonic prolongation	Extends tonic function over time.	I-V6-I6, I-vii°6-I6
Dominant prolongation	Extends dominant tension.	V-V4/3-V
Linear chord	Voice-leading chord, weak function.	Passing or neighbor chord

NON-DIATONIC CHORDS

CHORD	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
V7/ii	Dominant of supertonic.	A7 in C major
V7/iii	Dominant of mediant.	B7 in C major
V7/IV	Dominant of subdominant.	C7 in C major
V7/V	Dominant of dominant.	D7 in C major
V7/vi	Dominant of submediant.	E7 in C major
vii°7/ii	Leading-tone of ii.	C♯°7 in C major
vii°7/iii	Leading-tone of iii.	D♯°7 in C major
vii°7/IV	Leading-tone of IV.	E°7 in C major
vii°7/V	Leading-tone of V.	F♯°7 in C major
vii°7/vi	Leading-tone of vi.	G♯°7 in C major
♭II (Neapolitan)	Major chord on ♭2.	D♭ in C
♭III	Major chord on ♭3.	E♭ in C major
iv	Minor subdominant.	Fm in C major
♭VI	Major chord on ♭6.	A♭ in C major
♭VII	Major chord on ♭7.	B♭ in C major
♭vii	Minor chord on ♭7.	B♭m in C major
i (parallel minor)	Minor tonic in major key.	Cm in C major
♯iv°	Raised subdominant diminished.	F♯° in C
Italian augmented sixth (It+6)	♭6-1-♯4. Three notes.	A♭-C-F♯
French augmented sixth (Fr+6)	♭6-1-2-♯4. Four notes.	A♭-C-D-F♯
German augmented sixth (Gr+6)	♭6-1-♭3-♯4. Four notes.	A♭-C-E♭-F♯
Doubly-augmented sixth	♯4 approached by ♭6 and ♭♭3.	Rare
Neapolitan sixth (N6)	♭II in first inversion.	D♭/F in C
Neapolitan root position	♭II in root position.	D♭ in C (less common)
Common-tone diminished	°7 sharing tone with resolution.	C♯°7→C
Common-tone augmented sixth	+6 with common tone.	Prolongation
Chromatic mediant	Major/minor 3rd away.	C to E or C to A♭
Upper chromatic mediant	Up by major 3rd.	C to E
Lower chromatic mediant	Down by major 3rd.	C to A♭
Doubly chromatic mediant	3rd away, opposite mode.	C major to E♭ minor
Passing chord	Chromatic chord connecting two.	C - C♯° - Dm
Neighboring chord	Chromatic chord moving back.	C - D♭ - C
Appoggiatura chord	Chord resolving to target.	Metric emphasis
Pedal chord	Harmony over pedal point.	Changing chords, static bass
Linear chord	Voice-leading chord.	Weak harmonic function

KEY RELATIONSHIPS

RELATIONSHIP	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Relative major/minor	Share key signature.	C major / A minor
Parallel major/minor	Same tonic, different mode.	C major / C minor
Closely related keys	Differ by one accidental.	C→G, F, Am, Em, Dm
Dominant key	Key of V.	G major from C major
Subdominant key	Key of IV.	F major from C major
Relative of dominant	Relative minor of V.	E minor from C major
Relative of subdominant	Relative minor of IV.	D minor from C major
Distantly related	3+ accidentals different.	C major to F♯ major
Chromatic mediant	Major or minor 3rd away.	C→E, C→A♭
Tritone relation	Six half-steps away.	C→F♯/G♭
Enharmonic keys	Same pitches, different spelling.	C♯/D♭, F♯/G♭
Circle of fifths	Keys by ascending 5ths.	C-G-D-A-E-B-F♯-C♯
Circle of fourths	Keys by ascending 4ths.	C-F-B♭-E♭-A♭-D♭-G♭

COMMON PROGRESSIONS

PROGRESSION	CHARACTER	EXAMPLE
I-IV-V-I	Basic tonic-predominant-dominant.	Foundation of tonality
I-V-vi-IV	Pop progression.	Axis of Awesome
I-vi-IV-V	50s doo-wop.	Stand By Me
vi-IV-I-V	Sensitive female chord progression.	With or Without You
I-IV-vi-V	Axis variant.	Smooth, emotional
ii-V-I	Jazz cadence.	Most common in jazz
I-vi-ii-V	Turnaround.	Circle back to I
iii-vi-ii-V-I	Extended turnaround.	Autumn Leaves
I-V-vi-iii-IV-I-IV-V	Pachelbel Canon.	Descending bass line
i-♭VII-♭VI-V	Andalusian cadence.	Flamenco, classical
I-♭VII-IV-I	Rock progression.	Mixolydian borrowing
I-♭III-♭VII-IV	Epic progression.	Film scores
I-V/vi-vi-V/V-V	Secondary dominant chain.	Classical sequence
i-iv-V-i	Minor cadence.	Basic minor
i-♭VI-♭III-♭VII	Minor axis.	Emotional minor
i-iv-♭VII-♭III	Minor plateau.	Goth/dark
I-IV-♭VII-IV	Plagal rock.	Hey Joe (intro)
I-V6-vi-V	Falling bass.	Continuous descent
I-iii-IV-iv	Minor IV classic.	Creep
I-I+-I6-I7	Chromatic bass line.	James Bond
♭VI-♭VII-I	Mario cadence.	Video game music
iv-I	Minor plagal.	Borrowed color
♭VII-I	Subtonic resolution.	Backdoor arrival
♭II-I	Neapolitan resolution.	Tritone sub resolution

MODULATION

TECHNIQUE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Common chord (pivot)	Chord functions in both keys.	F = IV in C, VI in Am
Diatonic pivot	Pivot chord diatonic to both keys.	G = V in C, IV in D
Chromatic pivot	Pivot uses chromatic alteration.	A7 = V7/ii in C, V7 in D
Enharmonic pivot	Pivot respelled to function differently.	Ger+6 = V7 of ♭II
Common tone	Single pitch connects keys.	Hold G from C to E♭ (both have G)
Common tone diminished	°7 chord shares tone with target.	C♯°7 to D major
Chromatic modulation	Chromatic voice leading shifts key.	E→E♭ moves C to Cm
Linear chromatic	Stepwise chromatic bass or soprano.	Chromatic bass descent
Chromatic sequence	Pattern moves chromatically.	Descending chromatic sequence
Direct (phrase) modulation	Abrupt change at phrase boundary.	End C, start E♭
Unprepared modulation	No pivot or preparation.	Dramatic effect
Truck driver modulation	Up half/whole step for climax.	Pop song key lift
Sequential modulation	Pattern repeated at new level.	Ascending by step
Circle of fifths sequence	Moves through descending 5ths.	vi-ii-V-I pattern transposed
Ascending 5ths sequence	Less common, upward.	I-V-ii-vi pattern
Enharmonic dim7	Respell °7 for new function. Only 3 unique.	C°7 = E♭°7 = F♯°7 = A°7
Enharmonic Ger+6 = V7	German +6 respelled as dominant 7.	A♭-C-E♭-F♯ → A♭-C-E♭-G♭
Enharmonic Fr+6	French +6 respelled.	Less common pivot
Parallel key shift	Major to parallel minor or vice versa.	C major to C minor
Relative key shift	Major to relative minor or vice versa.	C major to A minor
Modal interchange modulation	Borrowed chord leads to new key.	♭VI leads to ♭VI as new I
Tritone modulation	Move to key a tritone away.	C to F♯/G♭
Third relation modulation	Move by major or minor third.	C to E (chromatic third)
Neapolitan modulation	♭II becomes tonic of new key.	D♭ in C becomes D♭ major tonic

NON-CHORD TONES

TONE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Passing tone (PT)	Steps between chord tones. Fills gap.	C-D-E (D passing)
Accented passing tone	Passing tone on strong beat.	D on beat between C and E
Unaccented passing tone	Passing tone on weak beat.	D off-beat between C and E
Chromatic passing tone	Half-step passing motion.	C-C♯-D
Double passing tone	Two passing tones in succession.	C-D-E-F (D,E passing to F)
Neighbor tone (NT)	Steps away and back. Ornaments.	E-F-E or E-D-E
Upper neighbor	Goes up and returns.	E-F-E
Lower neighbor	Goes down and returns.	E-D-E
Accented neighbor	Neighbor on strong beat.	F on beat, resolves to E
Chromatic neighbor	Half-step neighbor.	E-F-E or E-E♭-E
Double neighbor (changing tones)	Both upper and lower around note.	E-F-D-E or D-E-F-E
Incomplete neighbor (appoggiatura)	Approached by leap.	G-D-E (leap to D)
Suspension (S)	Held over, resolves down by step.	F (4) held, resolves to E (3)
4-3 suspension	Scale degree 4 resolves to 3.	F→E over C bass
9-8 suspension	Scale degree 9 resolves to 8.	D'→C' over C bass
7-6 suspension	Scale degree 7 resolves to 6.	B→A over C bass
2-3 suspension (bass)	In bass voice.	Bass D→E under C chord
Suspension chain	Consecutive suspensions.	4-3, 4-3, 4-3 descending
Decorated suspension	Ornaments added before resolution.	4-3 with turn
Retardation (R)	Held over, resolves UP by step.	B→C' (7→8)
7-8 retardation	Leading tone held, resolves up.	B→C
Anticipation (ANT)	Arrives early before its chord.	G played early before G7
Accented anticipation	Early note on strong beat.	Less common
Escape tone (ET)	Step away, leap to different CT.	E-F-D (step up, leap down)
Appoggiatura (APP)	Leap to dissonance, step to resolution. Accented.	Leap to D, resolve to C
Double appoggiatura	Two appoggiaturas together.	Two voices leap in
Pedal point (PED)	Sustained note while harmony changes.	Bass C through I-IV-V-I
Tonic pedal	Pedal on scale degree 1.	Bass C held
Dominant pedal	Pedal on scale degree 5.	Bass G held
Inverted pedal	Pedal in upper voice.	Soprano holds while bass moves
Double pedal	Two sustained pitches.	C and G held (tonic + dominant)
Cambiata (nota cambiata)	Step, leap same direction, step back.	E-D-B-C
Free tone	Unprepared dissonance, no clear category.	Modern usage
Échappée	Same as escape tone.	French term
Accented NCT	Any NCT falling on strong beat.	Increases tension
Unaccented NCT	Any NCT on weak beat/subdivision.	Smoother effect

VOICE LEADING

PRINCIPLE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Parallel motion	Same direction, same interval.	C-E to D-F (parallel 3rds)
Similar motion	Same direction, different intervals.	C-G to E-A
Contrary motion	Opposite directions.	C up to E, G down to E
Oblique motion	One voice stationary.	C holds, G moves to F
Parallel fifths	Consecutive P5s in same voices. Forbidden.	C-G to D-A
Parallel octaves	Consecutive P8s in same voices. Forbidden.	C-C' to D-D'
Parallel unisons	Consecutive P1s. Forbidden.	C-C to D-D
Direct (hidden) fifths	Similar motion to P5. Outer voices.	Approached P5 by similar motion
Direct (hidden) octaves	Similar motion to P8. Outer voices.	Approached P8 by similar motion
Horn fifths	Allowed parallel 5ths in inner voices.	Orchestral horn writing
Voice crossing	Upper voice below lower. Generally avoid.	Alto dips below tenor
Voice overlap	Voice moves past previous position of another.	Tenor leaps above alto's last note
Spacing	Keep adjacent upper voices within octave.	SA, AT within 8ve; TB can exceed
Tendency tone resolution	Leading tone up, chordal 7th down.	B→C, F→E in G7-C
Tritone resolution	Contracts inward or expands outward.	B-F resolves to C-E
Common tone retention	Keep shared pitch in same voice.	G in both C and G chords
Root doubling	Double root for stability.	Two voices on C in C chord
Fifth doubling	Double 5th for stability.	Two voices on G in C chord
Third doubling	Avoid doubling 3rd in root position.	Reduces function clarity
Leading tone doubling	Never double leading tone.	B should not be doubled
Seventh doubling	Never double chordal 7th.	7th must resolve
Stepwise motion preferred	Steps easier to sing than leaps.	Conjunct motion
Leap compensation	Follow leap with step in opposite direction.	Up a 4th, down a step
Avoid augmented intervals	Melodic A2, A4 awkward.	F-G♯ awkward melodically
Avoid 7th leaps	Melodic 7ths generally avoided.	C to B difficult
Climax placement	Single melodic peak, not repeated.	Phrase shape

TIME SIGNATURES

TYPE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Simple duple	Two beats, each divides in 2.	2/4, 2/2, 2/8
Simple triple	Three beats, each divides in 2.	3/4, 3/2, 3/8
Simple quadruple	Four beats, each divides in 2.	4/4, 4/2, 4/8
2/4	Two quarter-note beats. March, polka.	Quick duple
2/2 (cut time)	Two half-note beats. Alla breve.	Fast 4/4 feel
3/4	Three quarter-note beats. Waltz.	Dance triple
3/2	Three half-note beats. Slower triple.	Renaissance
4/4 (common time)	Four quarter-note beats. Standard.	Most common
4/2	Four half-note beats. Very slow.	Renaissance
Compound duple	Two beats, each divides in 3.	6/8, 6/4, 6/16
Compound triple	Three beats, each divides in 3.	9/8, 9/4
Compound quadruple	Four beats, each divides in 3.	12/8, 12/4
6/8	Two dotted-quarter beats. Jig, barcarolle.	ONE-two-three-FOUR-five-six
6/4	Two dotted-half beats. Slower compound.	Hemiola common
9/8	Three dotted-quarter beats.	Triple compound
12/8	Four dotted-quarter beats. Slow blues.	Shuffle feel
5/4	Five quarter beats. 2+3 or 3+2.	Take Five, Mars (Holst)
5/8	Five eighth-note beats.	2+3 or 3+2
7/4	Seven quarter beats.	Money (Pink Floyd)
7/8	Seven eighth-note beats. 2+2+3, 3+2+2, etc.	Bulgarian rhythm
11/8	Eleven eighth beats. Various groupings.	3+3+3+2, etc.
13/8	Thirteen eighth beats.	Complex groupings
15/8	Fifteen eighth beats.	3+3+3+3+3, etc.
Aksak (additive)	Irregular beat groupings specified.	3+2+2 = 7/8
8/8 as 3+3+2	Different from 4/4.	Aksak eight
10/8 as 3+3+2+2	Grouped irregularly.	Balkan rhythm
Mixed meter	Meter changes throughout.	3/4 then 4/4 then 5/4
Polymetric	Multiple meters simultaneously.	3/4 against 4/4
Metric modulation	Tempo derived from previous rhythm.	♩=♪ of previous
Free time	No regular meter.	Cadenzas, chant
Ametric	Intentionally no pulse.	Avant-garde

TEMPO MARKINGS

MARKING	DEFINITION	USAGE
Larghissimo	Extremely slow. <24 BPM.	Glacial
Grave	Very slow, solemn. 25-45 BPM.	Funeral marches
Largo	Broad, slow. 40-60 BPM.	Handel's Largo
Lento	Slow. 45-60 BPM.	Barber's Adagio
Larghetto	Rather broad. 60-66 BPM.	Slightly faster than Largo
Adagio	Slow, at ease. 66-76 BPM.	Slow movements
Adagietto	Rather slow. 72-76 BPM.	Mahler 5 Adagietto
Andante	Walking pace. 76-108 BPM.	Moderate flow
Andantino	Slightly faster than Andante.	Light walking
Marcia moderato	March tempo. 83-85 BPM.	Military march
Moderato	Moderate. 108-120 BPM.	Middle ground
Allegretto	Moderately fast. 112-120 BPM.	Light, cheerful
Allegro moderato	Moderately quick. 116-120 BPM.	Between moderate and fast
Allegro	Fast, lively. 120-156 BPM.	Most fast movements
Vivace	Lively, fast. 156-176 BPM.	Very energetic
Vivacissimo	Very fast, lively.	Extremely animated
Allegrissimo	Very fast.	Maximum allegro
Presto	Very fast. 168-200 BPM.	Virtuosic speed
Prestissimo	Extremely fast. >200 BPM.	As fast as possible
Accelerando (accel.)	Gradually faster.	Building momentum
Stringendo	Hastening, pressing forward.	Urgent acceleration
Ritardando (rit.)	Gradually slower.	Approaching cadence
Rallentando (rall.)	Gradually slower.	Same as ritardando
Ritenuto (riten.)	Immediately slower.	Sudden slowdown
Allargando	Broadening (slower + louder).	Grand arrival
Calando	Decreasing (slower + softer).	Fading
Morendo	Dying away.	To silence
Smorzando	Extinguishing.	Fading to nothing
Stretto	Faster, tightening.	Fugal or accelerating
A tempo	Return to original tempo.	After rit. or accel.
Tempo primo (Tempo I)	Return to first tempo.	After tempo change
L'istesso tempo	Same tempo (new meter).	Beat stays constant
Rubato	Flexible tempo.	Romantic expression
Senza tempo	Without tempo.	Free rhythm
Fermata	Hold beyond written value.	Pause on note/rest
Lunga	Long fermata.	Extended hold
G.P. (Grand Pause)	All parts pause.	Dramatic silence

DYNAMICS

MARKING	DEFINITION	USAGE
pppp	As soft as possible.	Extremely rare
ppp (pianississimo)	Extremely soft.	Barely audible
pp (pianissimo)	Very soft.	Whisper quiet
p (piano)	Soft.	Quiet
mp (mezzo-piano)	Moderately soft.	Medium quiet
mf (mezzo-forte)	Moderately loud.	Medium loud
f (forte)	Loud.	Strong
ff (fortissimo)	Very loud.	Powerful
fff (fortississimo)	Extremely loud.	Maximum power
ffff	As loud as possible.	Extremely rare
Crescendo (<)	Gradually louder.	Hairpin or cresc.
Decrescendo (>)	Gradually softer.	Hairpin or decresc.
Diminuendo (dim.)	Gradually softer.	Same as decresc.
Poco a poco cresc.	Little by little louder.	Gradual build
Sempre cresc.	Always/continuously louder.	Keep building
Molto cresc.	Much louder.	Big increase
Crescendo al ff	Crescendo to fortissimo.	Target dynamic
Subito (sub.)	Suddenly.	Immediate change
Subito piano (sub. p)	Suddenly soft.	Immediate drop
Subito forte (sub. f)	Suddenly loud.	Immediate jump
Sforzando (sfz)	Forced accent.	Strong attack
Sforzato (sf)	Same as sforzando.	Strong accent
Forzando (fz)	Forced.	Strong accent
Rinforzando (rfz)	Reinforced.	Sudden emphasis
Forte-piano (fp)	Loud then immediately soft.	Accent + drop
Sforzando-piano (sfp)	Sforzando then piano.	Strong attack + soft
Fortepiano crescendo	fp with cresc. following.	Attack, drop, build
Niente (n)	Nothing. To/from silence.	Fade to silence
Perdendosi	Losing itself.	Dying away
Morendo	Dying.	Fade + slow
Calando	Decreasing.	Softer + slower
Mancando	Failing, dying away.	Fading
Sotto voce	Under the voice.	Subdued, whispered
Mezza voce	Half voice.	Moderate, restrained
A voce piena	Full voice.	Fully projected
Marcato	Marked, emphatic.	Strong accents
Ben marcato	Well marked.	Very emphatic

ARTICULATION

TYPE	DEFINITION	EFFECT
Staccato	Short, detached. Dot.	Half value or less
Staccatissimo	Very short. Wedge.	Quarter value or less
Mezzo staccato	Slightly detached. Dot + line.	Three-quarter value
Legato	Smooth, connected. Slur.	Full value, connected
Legatissimo	Very smooth.	Maximum connection
Portato (louré)	Gently detached. Dots under slur.	Semi-detached
Tenuto	Hold full value. Line.	Slight emphasis
Sostenuto	Sustained.	Held, connected
Non legato	Not connected.	Slight separation
Accent (>)	Strong attack.	Emphasized
Marcato (^)	Strong accent with weight.	Very emphasized
Strong accent (>)	Horizontal wedge.	Sharp attack
Sforzando (sfz)	Forced accent.	Sudden strong
Rinforzando (rf, rfz)	Reinforced.	Strengthened
Hard attack	Sharp, immediate onset.	Percussive
Soft attack	Gradual onset.	Gentle entry
Bell tone	Let ring.	Resonant, sustained
Arco	With bow (strings).	Normal bowing
Pizzicato (pizz.)	Plucked strings.	Finger pluck
Snap pizzicato (Bartók)	String snaps against fingerboard.	Percussive pluck
Col legno	With wood of bow.	Wooden, percussive
Col legno battuto	Striking with wood.	Percussion effect
Col legno tratto	Drawing with wood.	Eerie sustain
Sul ponticello	Near bridge.	Glassy, metallic
Sul tasto	Over fingerboard.	Soft, flute-like
Ordinario (ord.)	Normal position.	After special
Spiccato	Bouncing bow.	Light, controlled
Sautillé	Fast spiccato.	Rapid bounce
Ricochet	Thrown bow bouncing.	Multiple bounces
Jeté	Thrown bow.	Bouncing strokes
Détaché	Separate bow strokes.	Smooth, separate
Martelé	Hammered strokes.	Strong, separate
Tremolo	Rapid bow alternation.	Measured or unmeasured
Fingered tremolo	Rapid alternation between pitches.	Two notes rapidly
Harmonics	Light touch produces overtone.	High, pure tone
Natural harmonic	Open string harmonic.	Fixed pitches
Artificial harmonic	Stopped string + touch.	Any pitch
Con sordino	With mute.	Muffled, soft
Senza sordino	Without mute.	Normal
Tonguing	Articulation with tongue.	Normal attack
Double tonguing	TK TK pattern.	Fast notes
Triple tonguing	TKT TKT pattern.	Triplet patterns
Flutter tonguing	Rolled R while playing.	Fluttering effect
Slap tongue	Percussive attack.	Woodwind technique
Subtone	Airy, unfocused tone.	Jazz/soft passages
Overblowing	Produce upper harmonics.	Altissimo register
Una corda	Soft pedal (left).	Muted color
Tre corde	Release soft pedal.	Normal
Sostenuto pedal	Middle pedal.	Sustain selected notes
Damper pedal	Right pedal.	Sustain all

ORNAMENTATION

ORNAMENT	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Trill (tr)	Rapid alternation with upper note.	C-D-C-D-C-D...
Measured trill	Trill in exact rhythmic values.	Written-out rhythm
Unmeasured trill	Free speed.	As fast as possible
Trillo (Baroque)	Rapid repetition of one note.	Vocal technique
Trill from above	Starts on upper note.	Baroque default
Trill from below	Starts on main note.	Modern default
Trill with termination	Ends with turn.	Cadential trill
Half trill (Pralltriller)	Very short trill.	One or two alternations
Inverted trill	Alternation with lower note.	Less common
Mordent (upper)	Main-upper-main. Short.	C-D-C
Inverted mordent (lower)	Main-lower-main.	C-B-C
Double mordent	Two alternations.	C-D-C-D-C
Pralltriller	Very short upper mordent.	One alternation
Schneller	Inverted very short mordent.	One lower alternation
Turn	Upper-main-lower-main.	D-C-B-C
Inverted turn	Lower-main-upper-main.	B-C-D-C
Turn after note	Turn performed after main note.	Delayed turn
Turn between notes	Fills interval.	Connecting turn
Half turn (Praller)	Upper-main only.	Incomplete turn
Acciaccatura	Crushed note, before beat.	Very quick grace
Appoggiatura (long)	On-beat ornament, takes time.	Typically half value
Short appoggiatura	Quick on-beat grace.	Less than half
Double appoggiatura	Two grace notes before.	Both notes quick
Slide	Two or more grace notes ascending.	Scale up to main
Schleifer	Baroque slide.	Two notes before main
Nachschlag	Grace note(s) after main.	Termination notes
Vorschlag	Grace note(s) before main.	Approach notes
Doppelschlag	German turn.	Four-note figure
Tremolo	Rapid repetition.	Measured or unmeasured
Vibrato	Pitch oscillation.	Expressive warmth
Glissando	Slide between pitches.	All pitches between
Portamento	Smooth pitch slide.	Vocal/string
Scoop	Slide up to pitch.	Jazz/pop
Fall/Fall-off	Slide down from pitch.	Jazz/pop
Doit	Quick upward slide.	Jazz/pop
Bend	Temporary pitch deviation.	Blues/jazz
Ghost note	Barely audible pitch.	Felt, not heard
Flattement	Baroque finger vibrato.	Flute/recorder
Bebung	Clavichord vibrato.	Key pressure change

EXPRESSION MARKINGS

MARKING	MEANING	CHARACTER
Affettuoso	Affectionate, tender.	Loving character
Agitato	Agitated, restless.	Turbulent
Amabile	Amiable, pleasant.	Friendly
Amoroso	Loving.	Tender
Animato	Animated, lively.	Spirited
Appassionato	Passionate.	Intense emotion
Brillante	Brilliant, sparkling.	Flashy
Brio (con brio)	With vigor, spirit.	Energetic
Buffo	Comic, funny.	Humorous opera
Calmo	Calm.	Peaceful
Cantabile	In a singing style.	Melodic, lyrical
Capriccioso	Capricious, whimsical.	Free, fanciful
Comodo	Comfortable, easy.	Relaxed tempo
Con affetto	With emotion.	Expressive
Con amore	With love.	Affectionate
Con anima	With soul.	Soulful
Con fuoco	With fire.	Fiery, passionate
Con moto	With motion.	Moving forward
Con spirito	With spirit.	Spirited
Deciso	Decisive, bold.	Determined
Delicato	Delicate.	Light, gentle
Disperato	Desperate.	Anguished
Dolce	Sweet.	Gentle, soft
Dolente	Sorrowful.	Sad, plaintive
Doloroso	Painful, grieving.	Sorrowful
Drammatico	Dramatic.	Theatrical
Energico	Energetic.	Vigorous
Eroico	Heroic.	Bold, noble
Espressivo (espr.)	Expressive.	With feeling
Festivo	Festive.	Celebratory
Feroce	Fierce.	Wild, savage
Flebile	Plaintive, mournful.	Weeping
Forza (con forza)	With force.	Powerful
Funebre	Funereal.	Somber, mournful
Furioso	Furious.	Violent, wild
Giocoso	Playful, merry.	Humorous
Grandioso	Grand.	Noble, majestic
Grazioso	Graceful.	Elegant
Impetuoso	Impetuous.	Rushing forward
Innocente	Innocent.	Pure, simple
Inquieto	Restless.	Uneasy
Lamentoso	Lamenting.	Mournful
Languido	Languid.	Weak, faint
Leggiero	Light.	Delicate
Lugubre	Lugubrious.	Gloomy, mournful
Luminoso	Luminous.	Bright, radiant
Lusingando	Coaxing, caressing.	Persuasive
Maestoso	Majestic.	Stately, dignified
Malinconico	Melancholic.	Sad, gloomy
Marziale	Martial.	Military character
Mesto	Sad, mournful.	Sorrowful
Misterioso	Mysterious.	Enigmatic
Mobile	With motion.	Flexible
Nobile	Noble.	Dignified
Parlando	Speaking.	Speech-like
Pastorale	Pastoral.	Rural, peaceful
Patetico	With pathos.	Emotional
Pesante	Heavy.	Weighty
Piacevole	Pleasant.	Agreeable
Piangendo	Weeping.	Tearful
Poetico	Poetic.	Lyrical
Pomposo	Pompous.	Grand, showy
Quieto	Quiet.	Calm
Religioso	Religious.	Devout
Rigoroso	Rigorous, strict.	Precise tempo
Risoluto	Resolute.	Determined
Rustico	Rustic.	Rural character
Scherzando	Playful, joking.	Light-hearted
Semplice	Simple.	Plain, unaffected
Sensibile	Sensitive.	Delicate
Sereno	Serene.	Calm, peaceful
Serio	Serious.	Grave
Slancio (con slancio)	With enthusiasm.	Impetuous
Soave	Suave, gentle.	Sweet, smooth
Solenne	Solemn.	Ceremonial
Sonore	Sonorous.	Full, resonant
Sostenuto	Sustained.	Held, connected
Spianato	Smooth, even.	Flowing
Spirituoso	Spirited.	Witty
Strepitoso	Noisy, boisterous.	Loud, clamorous
Teneramente	Tenderly.	Gentle
Tenebroso	Dark, gloomy.	Somber
Tranquillo	Tranquil.	Peaceful
Trionfale	Triumphant.	Victorious
Tristamente	Sadly.	Sorrowful
Vivo	Lively.	Vivid
Volante	Flying.	Swift, light
Zeloso	Zealous.	Ardent

RHYTHMIC DEVICES

DEVICE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Syncopation	Accent on weak beat/off-beat.	Displaced emphasis
Hemiola	3:2 relationship. Two beats of 3 = three beats of 2.	6/4 felt as 3/2
Polyrhythm	Multiple rhythmic patterns simultaneously.	3 against 4
Cross-rhythm	Conflicting rhythm against meter.	Triplets in duple
Polymeter	Multiple meters simultaneously.	3/4 + 4/4
Metric displacement	Pattern shifted from expected beat.	Offset ostinato
Agogic accent	Accent through duration.	Longer note = accented
Tuplet	Irregular beat division.	Triplet, quintuplet
Triplet	3 notes in space of 2.	3:2 ratio
Duplet	2 notes in space of 3 (compound).	2:3 ratio
Quintuplet	5 notes in space of 4.	5:4 ratio
Sextuplet	6 notes in space of 4.	6:4 ratio
Septuplet	7 notes in space of 4 or 8.	Complex grouping
Irrational meter	Non-standard beat unit.	4/5, 4/3
Augmentation	Rhythmic values lengthened.	Double duration
Diminution	Rhythmic values shortened.	Half duration
Ostinato	Persistently repeated pattern.	Ground bass
Rhythmic motif	Characteristic rhythm pattern.	Beethoven 5th
Scotch snap	Short-long pattern (16th-dotted 8th).	Scottish/Baroque
Lombard rhythm	Same as Scotch snap.	Italian term
Swing	Unequal division of beat.	Jazz shuffle
Shuffle	Triplet-based swing.	Blues feel
Straight eighths	Equal eighth notes.	No swing
Backbeat	Accent on 2 and 4.	Rock/pop
Four on the floor	Kick on every beat.	Disco, house
Clave	Afro-Cuban pattern.	3-2 or 2-3 son clave
Tresillo	3+3+2 pattern.	Afro-Caribbean
Cinquillo	2+1+2+1+2 pattern.	Cuban
Montuno	Piano guajeo pattern.	Salsa
Second line	New Orleans rhythm.	Syncopated march
Bo Diddley beat	Shave-and-a-haircut pattern.	Rock and roll
Metric modulation	New tempo from subdivision.	Elliott Carter
Tempo rubato	Flexible tempo.	Push and pull
Accelerando/Ritardando	Gradual tempo change.	Speeding/slowing

MUSICAL FORMS

FORM	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Simple binary (AB)	Two sections, each repeated.	A:\|\|:B:\|\|
Rounded binary	A returns at end of B.	A:\|\|:BA:\|\|
Balanced binary	Both sections end similarly.	Matching cadential material
Continuous binary	A ends away from tonic.	Modulates to V
Sectional binary	A ends on tonic.	Complete A section
Simple ternary (ABA)	Statement-contrast-return.	ABA
Compound ternary	Each section is binary.	Minuet-Trio-Minuet
Da capo aria	ABA with ornamented return.	Baroque opera
Dal segno form	Return to sign.	D.S. al Fine
Five-part rondo (ABABA)	Refrain with one episode.	A-B-A-B-A
Seven-part rondo (ABACABA)	Refrain with two episodes.	A-B-A-C-A-B-A
Sonata-rondo	Hybrid with development.	A-B-A-Dev-A-B-A
Sonata form	Exposition-Development-Recapitulation.	Classical movements
Sonatina form	Sonata form without development.	Short pieces
Sonata without development	Expo-Recap only.	Early Classical
Sonata form with introduction	Slow intro before Allegro.	Beethoven symphonies
Sonata form with coda	Extended ending section.	Beethoven late style
First-movement form	Standard sonata form.	Also called sonata-allegro
Concerto first-movement	Double exposition.	Orchestra then soloist
Theme and variations	Theme + varied repetitions.	Goldberg Variations
Continuous variations	No breaks between variations.	Flowing
Sectional variations	Clear breaks between.	Character variations
Double variations	Two themes varied.	Haydn style
Character variations	Each variation distinct character.	Romantic style
Passacaglia	Variations over ground bass.	Bach C minor
Chaconne	Variations over harmonic progression.	Bach D minor
Ground bass	Repeated bass pattern.	Baroque standard
Ostinato form	Based on repeated pattern.	Minimalism
Fugue	Imitative counterpoint with subject.	Bach WTC
Fughetta	Short fugue.	Less development
Fugato	Fugal passage in larger work.	Development sections
Double fugue	Two subjects.	Introduced separately or together
Triple fugue	Three subjects.	Bach B minor Mass Kyrie
Permutation fugue	Voices permute material.	Early fugue style
Ricercar	Learned contrapuntal piece.	Fugue predecessor
Canon	Strict melodic imitation.	Row, Row, Row Your Boat
Invention	Two-voice counterpoint.	Bach Inventions
Sinfonia	Three-voice invention.	Bach Sinfonias
Strophic	Same music each verse.	Hymns, folk songs
Modified strophic	Slight changes per verse.	Varied strophic
Through-composed	No large-scale repetition.	Schubert Erlkönig
Song cycle	Collection of related songs.	Winterreise
Suite	Collection of dances.	Baroque dance suite
Overture	Orchestral introduction.	French, Italian styles
French overture	Slow-fast-slow.	Dotted rhythms
Italian overture	Fast-slow-fast.	Sinfonia
Prelude	Introductory piece.	Free or improvisatory
Fantasia	Free-form composition.	Improvisatory character
Toccata	Touch piece. Virtuosic.	Keyboard display
Rhapsody	Free, dramatic form.	National character
Ballade	Narrative form.	Chopin Ballades
Scherzo	Fast, playful movement.	Beethoven/Chopin
Nocturne	Night piece.	Chopin style
Étude	Study piece.	Technical + musical
Intermezzo	Between sections.	Brahms character piece
Impromptu	Seemingly improvised.	Schubert/Chopin
Moment musical	Musical moment.	Schubert
Bagatelle	Short, light piece.	Beethoven Bagatelles

SONG FORMS

SECTION	DEFINITION	USAGE
Verse only (AAA)	All verses, no chorus.	Folk ballads
Verse-refrain	Verse ends with refrain line.	Traditional songs
Verse-chorus (simple)	Alternating V and C.	V-C-V-C
Verse-chorus-verse-chorus	Standard pop form.	V-C-V-C
Verse-chorus-bridge	V-C-V-C-B-C.	Standard with bridge
Verse-prechorus-chorus	V-PC-C-V-PC-C.	Building tension
AABA (32-bar)	Verse-verse-bridge-verse.	Tin Pan Alley
ABAB	Alternating sections.	Verse-chorus pattern
ABAC	Return to A, different ending.	Jazz standard
ABABCB	With bridge.	Extended pop
Intro	Opening section.	Sets tone
Verse	Narrative section.	Different lyrics each time
Pre-chorus (lift)	Builds to chorus.	Transitional
Chorus (refrain)	Hook section.	Same each time
Post-chorus	After chorus momentum.	Modern pop
Bridge (middle 8)	Contrasting section.	New material
Breakdown	Stripped-down section.	Percussion focus
Build-up	Tension before drop.	EDM structure
Drop	Full energy release.	EDM climax
Outro/Coda	Ending section.	May fade out
Tag	Short repeated ending.	Repeat last phrase
Vamp	Repeated progression.	Indefinite repeat
Solo section	Instrumental feature.	Over verse/chorus chords
Instrumental break	Non-vocal section.	Riff or solo

TEXTURES

TEXTURE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Monophony	Single melodic line.	Gregorian chant
Unison	Multiple voices on same line.	Octave doublings
Heterophony	Same melody, simultaneous variants.	Gamelan
Polyphony	Multiple independent melodies.	Bach fugue
Homophony	Melody with accompaniment.	Piano song
Homorhythm	All voices same rhythm.	Chorale
Melody-dominated homophony	Clear top voice.	Romantic piano
Chorale texture	Four-voice hymn style.	Bach chorales
Chordal texture	Block chords.	Homophonic progression
Broken chord texture	Arpeggiated accompaniment.	Alberti bass
Alberti bass	Low-high-middle-high pattern.	Classical keyboard
Stride	Alternating bass and chord.	Jazz piano
Boom-chuck	Bass on 1,3; chord on 2,4.	Country/folk
Biphony	Two distinct layers.	Melody + drone
Drone	Sustained pitch(es) underneath.	Bagpipe
Stratified texture	Distinct layers.	Ives, Carter
Pointillism	Isolated notes.	Webern
Klangfarbenmelodie	Melody of tone colors.	Schoenberg Op. 16
Antiphony	Alternating groups.	Call and response
Polychoral	Multiple choirs.	Venetian
Micropolyphony	Dense, chromatic polyphony.	Ligeti
Thick texture	Many voices, dense.	Full orchestra tutti
Thin texture	Few voices, sparse.	Solo or duet
Contrapuntal texture	Imitative polyphony.	Fugue
Free texture	No regular pattern.	Avant-garde

COUNTERPOINT

TERM	DEFINITION	CONTEXT
First species	Note-against-note. 1:1.	All consonances
Second species	2:1 ratio. Passing dissonance.	Half notes vs whole
Third species	4:1 ratio. More freedom.	Quarter notes vs whole
Fourth species	Syncopation, suspensions.	Tied notes, dissonance
Fifth species (florid)	Free combination of all.	Mixed rhythms
Imitation	Repetition in another voice.	Subject entry
Strict imitation	Exact interval reproduction.	Real answer
Free imitation	Similar but not exact.	Tonal answer
Canon	Continuous strict imitation.	Round
Round	Canon at unison, returns to start.	Perpetual canon
Catch	Humorous round.	English catch
Canon at the unison	Same pitch level.	Row Your Boat
Canon at the 5th	Answer at fifth.	Kunst der Fuge
Canon at the octave	Answer octave above/below.	Common canon
Canon in contrary motion	Inversion canon.	Intervals reversed
Crab canon (retrograde)	Answer is backward.	Bach Musical Offering
Canon by augmentation	Answer in longer values.	2:1 rhythm
Canon by diminution	Answer in shorter values.	1:2 rhythm
Mirror canon	Melodic inversion.	Upside-down
Puzzle canon	Solution not notated.	Must be solved
Spiral canon	Modulates, never resolves.	Bach
Stretto canon	Overlapping entries.	Tight imitation
Subject	Main fugue theme.	Opening statement
Answer	Subject in second voice.	Real or tonal
Real answer	Exact transposition.	All intervals preserved
Tonal answer	Modified transposition.	Adjusts 5th↔1st
Countersubject	Accompanies answer.	Invertible with subject
Episode	Non-thematic passage.	Sequential, modulatory
Exposition	Initial subject entries.	All voices enter
Counter-exposition	Second exposition.	Re-entries
Middle entries	Subject in body of fugue.	Various keys
Stretto	Overlapping subject entries.	Intensification
Augmentation	Subject in longer values.	Climactic device
Diminution	Subject in shorter values.	Intensification
Inversion	Subject upside-down.	Melodic mirror
Retrograde	Subject backward.	Rare, learned
Pedal point	Sustained note (usually tonic/dom).	Near end
Invertible counterpoint	Voices can exchange.	Double counterpoint
Double counterpoint at 8ve	Invert by octave.	Most common
Double counterpoint at 10th	Invert by 10th.	Inverts 3rds↔6ths
Double counterpoint at 12th	Invert by 12th.	Inverts 5ths↔8ves
Triple counterpoint	Three invertible voices.	Six permutations
Quadruple counterpoint	Four invertible voices.	24 permutations
Double fugue	Two subjects.	Separate or combined exposition
Triple fugue	Three subjects.	Bach B minor Kyrie
Permutation fugue	Constant countersubject rotation.	Renaissance
Group fugue	Subject has distinct motifs.	Handel style
Accompanied fugue	Homophonic elements mixed.	Later Baroque/Classical
Fugato	Fugal passage in larger work.	Sonata development
Fughetta	Short fugue.	Less development

JAZZ HARMONY

TECHNIQUE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Altered dominant	Dom7 with ♭9, ♯9, ♯11, ♭13.	G7alt
Tritone substitution	♭II7 for V7. Share tritone.	D♭7 for G7
Backdoor dominant	♭VII7 to I. Alternate resolution.	B♭7 to C
Passing diminished	Chromatic dim7 connection.	C - C♯° - Dm
Common-tone diminished	°7 shares tone with resolution.	C♯°7 to C
ii-V-I major	Most common jazz cadence.	Dm7-G7-Cmaj7
ii-V-i minor	Minor jazz cadence.	Dm7♭5-G7-Cm7
I-vi-ii-V (turnaround)	Circle back to I.	Cmaj7-Am7-Dm7-G7
iii-VI-ii-V	Extended turnaround.	Em7-A7-Dm7-G7
Rhythm changes	I Got Rhythm progression.	AABA form, specific changes
Coltrane changes	Giant Steps, major 3rd cycles.	B-D-G-B♭-E♭-G♭
Bird changes (bebop)	Charlie Parker substitutions.	Added ii-Vs
Tadd Dameron turnaround	Imaj7-♭VIImaj7-♭VImaj7-V7.	Chromatic descent
Lady Bird turnaround	Imaj7-♭IIImaj7-♭IImaj7-V7.	Tadd Dameron
Countdown changes	Coltrane's reharmonization.	Tune Up becomes Countdown
So What changes	Modal, minimal changes.	D Dorian, E♭ Dorian
Minor blues	Blues with minor i chord.	Cm7-Fm7-G7-Cm7
Jazz blues	Blues with jazz substitutions.	Quick IV, ♯IV°, ii-V
Modal jazz	Based on modes, slow changes.	Miles Davis modal period
Shell voicing	Root, 3rd, 7th only.	Left hand comp
Rootless voicing	No root (bass plays).	3-5-7-9 or 7-9-3-5
Drop 2	2nd from top dropped octave.	Guitar/piano voicing
Drop 3	3rd from top dropped octave.	Wider voicing
Drop 2+4	Both dropped.	Very open
Close voicing	All within octave.	Tight, block
Open voicing	Spread beyond octave.	Drop voicings
Spread voicing	Wide interval distribution.	Orchestral
Cluster voicing	Adjacent notes, 2nds.	Modern jazz
Quartal voicing	Built in 4ths.	McCoy Tyner
Quintal voicing	Built in 5ths.	Open, modern
Upper structure triad	Triad over bass/7th.	D/C7 = C13
Polychord	Two triads combined.	D/C = Cmaj9♯11
Block chords	Melody harmonized in parallel.	Locked hands
Locked hands (Shearing)	Melody doubled, block voicing.	George Shearing style
Red Garland voicing	Octave melody + block.	Left hand block + right octave
Bill Evans voicing	Rootless, spread voicings.	Modal voicings
Herbie Hancock voicing	Upper structures, clusters.	Modern jazz
Reharmonization	New chords for existing melody.	Jazz standard reworking
Negative harmony	Mirror around axis.	Ernst Levy/Collier
Planing	Parallel chord movement.	Debussy, modal jazz
Side-slipping	Temporary chromatic shift.	Half step away and back
Voice leading approach	Chromatic approach to chord.	bVI-bVII-I
Approach chord	Chromatic chord before target.	Half step below/above
Back-cycling	Add ii-V before target.	Chain of ii-Vs

SERIAL COMPOSITION

TERM	DEFINITION	CONTEXT
Twelve-tone technique	All 12 pitches in row.	Schoenberg method
Tone row (series)	Ordered pitch sequence.	Primary material
Prime (P)	Original row form.	P0 = starting pitch
Retrograde (R)	Row backward.	R0 = P0 reversed
Inversion (I)	Intervals inverted.	I0 = P0 upside-down
Retrograde-inversion (RI)	Inverted then backward.	RI0
Transposition	Row at different pitch level.	P5 = P0 up 5 semitones
Matrix	12×12 grid of all forms.	48 row forms total
Hexachord	First/second half of row.	6-note collection
Combinatoriality	Hexachords combine to complete aggregate.	P0 + I5 = 12 tones
All-combinatorial	Combinatorial with all transformations.	Babbitt
Aggregate	All 12 pitch classes.	Complete chromatic
Set class	Collection under transposition/inversion.	Forte number
Prime form	Most compact set representation.	Starts on 0
Interval class	Smallest form of interval.	ic 1-6
Interval vector	6 numbers showing ic content.	[001110] = major triad
Derived row	Built from subset transformations.	Trichord transpositions
All-interval row	Contains all 11 interval classes.	Berg Violin Concerto
Symmetrical row	Palindromic or other symmetry.	Same forward/backward
Total serialism	All parameters serialized.	Rhythm, dynamics, etc.
Integral serialism	Stricter total serialism.	Boulez, Babbitt
Rhythmic series	Serialized durations.	Rhythm row
Dynamic series	Serialized dynamics.	Volume row
Timbral series	Serialized tone colors.	Articulation row
Register series	Serialized octave placement.	Pitch space row
Pointillism	Isolated, separated notes.	Webern style
Post-serial	After strict serialism.	Free atonality

MESSIAEN MODES OF LIMITED TRANSPOSITION

MODE	DEFINITION	TRANSPOSITIONS
Mode 1 (Whole Tone)	6 notes. (M2)×6. 2 transpositions. Symmetrical.	C-D-E-F♯-G♯-A♯
M1 - Transposition a	First whole-tone collection.	C-D-E-G♭-A♭-B♭
M1 - Transposition b	Second whole-tone collection.	D♭-E♭-F-G-A-B
M1 - Origins	(M2)×6, (M3)×3, TT, (m6)×3, (m7)×6.	6 origins, 1 mode
Mode 2 (Octatonic)	8 notes. W-H alternating. 3 transpositions.	C-D♭-E♭-E-F♯-G-A-B♭
M2 - Mode 1 (half-whole)	Starting with half step.	C-D♭-E♭-E-F♯-G-A-B♭
M2 - Mode 2 (whole-half)	Starting with whole step.	D♭-E♭-E-F♯-G-A-B♭-C
M2 - Transposition a	First octatonic collection.	C-D♭-E♭-E-G♭-G-A-B♭
M2 - Transposition b	Second octatonic collection.	D♭-D-E-F-G-A♭-B♭-B
M2 - Transposition c	Third octatonic collection.	D-E♭-F-G♭-A♭-A-B-C
M2 - Diminished 7th content	Contains full °7 chord.	C-E♭-G♭-A (within M2a)
Mode 3	9 notes. 4 transpositions. 3 modes.	C-D-E♭-E-G♭-G-A♭-B♭-B
M3 - Formula	(M2+m2+m2)×3 pattern.	9 notes, 3-note cells
M3 - Augmented content	Contains augmented triads.	C-E-A♭ (within M3)
M3 - Transposition a	First M3 collection.	C-D-E♭-E-G♭-G-A♭-B♭-B
M3 - Transposition b	Second M3 collection.	D♭-E♭-E-F-G-A♭-A-B-C
M3 - Transposition c	Third M3 collection.	D-E-F-G♭-A♭-A-B♭-B-C
M3 - Transposition d	Fourth M3 collection.	E♭-F-G♭-G-A-B♭-B-D♭-D
Mode 4	8 notes. 6 transpositions. 4 modes.	C-D♭-D-F-G♭-G-A♭-B
M4 - Formula	(m2+m2+m3+m2)×2 pattern.	Asymmetric cells
M4 - Tritone content	Contains tritone axis.	C-G♭ within M4
Mode 5	6 notes. 6 transpositions. 3 modes.	C-D♭-F-G♭-G-B
M5 - Formula	(m2+M3+m2)×2 pattern.	Wide intervals
M5 - Quartal content	Contains stacked 4ths.	C-F-G within M5
Mode 6	8 notes. 6 transpositions. 4 modes.	C-D-E-F-G♭-A♭-B♭-B
M6 - Formula	(M2+M2+m2+m2)×2 pattern.	Whole-tone + chromatic
M6 - Tritone pair	Two tritones present.	C-G♭, E-B♭
Mode 7	10 notes. 6 transpositions. 5 modes.	C-D♭-D-E♭-F-G♭-G-A♭-A-B
M7 - Formula	(m2+m2+m2+M2+m2)×2 pattern.	Most chromatic mode
M7 - Near-chromatic	Missing only 2 notes from chromatic.	Densest mode
Limited transposition	Fewer than 12 unique transpositions.	Symmetry creates repetition
Intransitive reflection	Mode maps to itself under inversion.	Self-symmetric
Scale necklace	Circular representation of pitch classes.	Visual symmetry

VOICINGS & SPREAD TECHNIQUES

VOICING	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Root position voicing	R-3-5 or R-3-5-7. Standard stacking.	C-E-G-B
Shell voicing	3-7 only. Defines chord quality.	E-B♭ for C7
Guide tones	3rd and 7th. Essential chord identity.	Define major/minor/dominant
Drop 2	2nd voice from top dropped octave.	Close C-E-G-B → G-C-E-B
Drop 3	3rd voice from top dropped octave.	Close C-E-G-B → E-C-G-B
Drop 4	4th voice from top dropped octave.	Bass note dropped
Drop 2+4	Both 2nd and 4th dropped.	Very open voicing
Drop 2+3	Both 2nd and 3rd dropped.	Wide middle
Spread voicing	Wide intervallic distribution.	3-1-7-5 from bottom
Red's Spread	Red Garland style. Octave melody + spread.	LH spread + RH octave
Block Spread	Block chord with spread intervals.	Thickened spread
Major 9 Spread	Spread voicing featuring 9th.	3-5-7-9 spacing
Sugar chord (closed)	Sweet, close voicing. Kenny Barron style.	Tight upper structure
Sugar chord (Drop 2)	Sugar voicing with drop 2.	Opened sugar chord
Sugar chord (Drop 3)	Sugar voicing with drop 3.	Wider sugar chord
Triad pair melody	Improvising with two triads.	Upper structure triads
Triad pair chords	Voicings built from triad pairs.	Two triads combined
Triad pair - major	Two major triads a tone apart.	C + D triads
Triad pair - minor	Two minor triads a tone apart.	Am + Bm triads
Cluster voicing	Adjacent notes (2nds). Dense.	C-D-E-F
Quartal voicing	Stacked 4ths. McCoy Tyner.	D-G-C-F
Quintal voicing	Stacked 5ths. Open, hollow.	C-G-D-A
So What voicing	Quartal + 3rd on top.	E-A-D-G-B
Upper structure triad	Triad over bass note/7th.	E/C = Cmaj7♯5
US I	Major triad from root.	C/C7 (basic)
US II	Major triad from 2nd.	D/C7 = C9
US ♭III	Major triad from ♭3.	E♭/C7 = C7♯9
US ♭V	Major triad from ♭5.	G♭/C7 = C7♯11
US ♭VI	Major triad from ♭6.	A♭/C7 = C7♭13
US VI	Major triad from 6th.	A/C7 = C13
Rootless Type A	3-5-7-9 voicing.	For ii chords
Rootless Type B	7-9-3-5 voicing.	For V chords
Rootless minor	Min7 without root.	♭3-5-♭7-9
Two-handed rootless	LH + RH rootless combined.	Full piano voicing
Stride LH	Bass note-chord-bass-chord.	Oom-pah pattern
Locked hands	Melody doubled, block chords.	Shearing style
Four-way close	Melody + 3 voices below.	All within octave
Drop 2 block	Four-way close with drop 2.	Standard big band

DOMINANT CHORD TYPES

TYPE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
V7	Basic dominant seventh.	G7 in C
V7sus4	Suspended dominant.	G7sus4
V+	Augmented dominant (V7♯5).	G7♯5 = G-B-D♯-F
I°7 / V	Diminished 7th over dominant bass.	G°7/G approaching C
vii°7/V	Leading-tone dim7 of dominant.	F♯°7 → G
Passing °7	Chromatic diminished connection.	C - C♯°7 - Dm
V7♭9	Dominant with flat 9.	G-B-D-F-A♭
V7♯9	Dominant with sharp 9.	G-B-D-F-A♯
V7♭5	Dominant with flat 5.	G-B-D♭-F
V7♯5	Dominant with sharp 5.	G-B-D♯-F
V7♯11	Lydian dominant.	G-B-D-F-C♯
V7♭13	Dominant with flat 13.	G-B-D-F-E♭
V7alt	All alterations available.	G7♭9♯9♯11♭13
Tritone sub (♭II7)	Dominant a tritone away.	D♭7 for G7
Backdoor (♭VII7)	Mixolydian dominant approach.	B♭7 → C
♯IV°7	Common-tone diminished.	F♯°7 → C

POLYRHYTHMS & TABLA

TERM	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
2:3 (hemiola)	Two against three.	Duple over triple
3:4	Three against four.	Common jazz polyrhythm
4:5	Four against five.	Complex subdivision
5:6	Five against six.	Near-equal streams
3:5	Three against five.	Asymmetric overlay
4:7	Four against seven.	Advanced polyrhythm
5:7	Five against seven.	Prime number complexity
7:8	Seven against eight.	Near-unison divergence
x/2 ratios	1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2...	Against duple
x/3 ratios	2/3, 4/3, 5/3, 7/3...	Against triple
x/4 ratios	3/4, 5/4, 7/4...	Against quadruple
x/5 ratios	2/5, 3/5, 4/5, 6/5...	Against quintuple
Ta	Quarter note. Single stroke.	Basic pulse
Ta Ka	Eighth notes. Two syllables.	Duple division
Ta Ki Ta	Triplet. Three syllables.	Triple division
Ta Ka Di Mi	Sixteenth notes. Four syllables.	Quadruple division
Ta Din Gi Na Tom	Quintuplet. Five syllables.	Fives
Ta Ki Ta Ta Ki Ta	Sextuplet. Six syllables.	Double triplet
Ta Ka Di Mi Ta Ki Ta	Septuplet. Seven syllables.	Sevens
Ta Ka Di Mi Ta Ka Jo No	Octuplet. Eight syllables.	Eights
Ta Ka Di Mi Ta Din Gi Na Tom	Nonuplet. Nine syllables.	Nines
Nonretrogradable rhythm	Palindrome. Same forward/backward.	Messiaen concept
Rhythmic palindrome	Duration sequence mirrors itself.	1-2-3-2-1
Added value rhythm	Small value added to pattern.	Messiaen technique

INTRANSITIVE SCALE REFLECTIONS

SCALE	DEFINITION	REFLECTION
Ionian ↔ Phrygian	Intransitive reflection pair.	Mirror around axis
Dorian ↔ Dorian	Self-symmetric. Own reflection.	Palindromic mode
Lydian ↔ Locrian	Intransitive reflection pair.	Brightest ↔ darkest
Mixolydian ↔ Aeolian	Intransitive reflection pair.	Dominant ↔ minor
Melodic minor ↔ Dorian ♭2	Melodic minor reflection pair.	Jazz minor family
Lydian augmented ↔ Altered	Melodic minor reflection pair.	Brightest ↔ darkest
Lydian dominant ↔ Locrian ♮2	Melodic minor reflection pair.	Overtone ↔ half-dim
Hindu ↔ Hindu	Self-symmetric in melodic minor.	Mixolydian ♭6
Double harmonic minor ↔ Oriental	Double harmonic reflection.	Byzantine family
Ionian ♯5 ♯2 ↔ Ultra Phrygian	Double harmonic reflection.	Augmented pair
Locrian w3 w7 ↔ Lydian ♯2 ♯6	Double harmonic reflection.	Extreme pair
Harmonic major ♭2 ↔ itself	Self-symmetric.	Palindromic
Neapolitan major ↔ itself	Self-symmetric scale.	Palindromic structure
Lydian ♯5 ♯6 ↔ Altered w3	Exotic reflection pair.	Chromatic extremes
Overtone ♯5 ↔ Altered ♮2	Exotic reflection pair.	Augmented/altered
Hindu ♯4 ↔ Hindu ♭5	Exotic reflection pair.	Tritone shift

SMALL SCALES (2-4 NOTES)

TYPE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Honchoshi	R-4. Japanese ditonic.	C-F
Niagari	R-5. Perfect fifth frame.	C-G
Vietnamese ditonic	R-2. Whole step.	C-D
Warao ditonic	R-♭7. Minor seventh.	C-B♭
Raga Malasri	R-3-5. Major triad outline.	C-E-G
Raga Bilwadala	R-3-6. Major with 6th.	C-E-A
Raga Onkari	R-♯4-5. Lydian fragment.	C-F♯-G
Sansagari	R-4-♭7. Suspended feel.	C-F-B♭
Vietnamese tritonic	R-♭3-4. Minor beginning.	C-E♭-F
Warao tritonic	R-4-5. Fourth + fifth.	C-F-G
Peruvian tritonic	R-♭3-6. Minor with 6th.	C-E♭-A
Ute tritonic	R-♭3-♭7. Minor seventh outline.	C-E♭-B♭
Raga Sumukam	R-2-♭5-7. Diminished + leading.	C-D-G♭-B
Raga Bhavani	R-2-4-6. Stepwise + 6th.	C-D-F-A
Raga Lavangi	R-♭2-5-♭7. Phrygian fragment.	C-D♭-G-B♭
Genus Primum	R-2-4-5. Greek tetrachord.	C-D-F-G
Vietnamese tetratonic	R-♭3-4-5. Minor pentatonic start.	C-E♭-F-G
Warao tetratonic	R-2-♭3-♭7. Dorian fragment.	C-D-E♭-B♭
Eskimo tetratonic	R-2-3-5. Major pentatonic core.	C-D-E-G
Bi Yu	R-♭3-5-♭7. Minor 7th arpeggio.	C-E♭-G-B♭

COMPOSITIONAL TECHNIQUES

TECHNIQUE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Aria	Solo vocal piece with orchestra.	Opera/oratorio
Ballad	Narrative song. Tells a story.	Folk tradition
Concerto	Soloist with orchestra.	Three movements typical
Mass	Choral setting of Catholic liturgy.	Kyrie-Gloria-Credo-Sanctus-Agnus
Opera	Drama set to music. Sung throughout.	Staged with orchestra
Oratorio	Large choral work. Not staged.	Religious text
Improvviso	Spontaneous composition.	Created in performance
Motif	Shortest musical idea. Building block.	Beethoven 5th: da-da-da-DUM
Phrase	Complete musical thought. Like a sentence.	4-8 bars typical
Period	Two phrases: antecedent + consequent.	Question + answer
Parallel period	Both phrases start similarly.	Same opening
Contrasting period	Phrases differ in character.	Different openings
Sentence	1+1+2 phrase structure.	Statement-restatement-continuation
Real sequence	Exact interval transposition.	All intervals preserved
Tonal sequence	Adjusted to stay in key.	Quality may change
Modified sequence	Pattern embellished.	Ornamented repeat
False sequence	Intervals altered significantly.	Pattern recognition only
Hocket	Melody split between voices.	Medieval technique
Isorhythm	Repeated rhythmic pattern (talea).	With pitch pattern (color)
Cantus firmus	Pre-existing melody as basis.	Gregorian chant foundation
Sprechstimme	Speech-song. Pitched speaking.	Schoenberg Pierrot
Aleatory	Chance elements in composition.	John Cage
Graphic notation	Non-traditional notation.	Visual scores
Extended technique	Non-standard instrument use.	Prepared piano, multiphonics

SPECIES COUNTERPOINT

RULE	DEFINITION	APPLICATION
Consonance types	Perfect (P1,P5,P8) and imperfect (3,6).	Foundation of counterpoint
Dissonance handling	Approach and leave by step.	Controlled tension
Contrary motion preference	Opposite directions when possible.	Voice independence
Avoid parallel P5/P8	Never consecutive perfect intervals.	Weakens independence
Approach perfects carefully	Contrary or oblique motion to P5/P8.	One voice by step
1:1 - Mostly consonant	Use 6ths, 3rds, 8ves frequently.	Occasional P5
1:1 - No repeated tones	Each note should be different.	Unless harmony changes
1:1 - Limit consecutives	Max 3-4 of same interval type.	Maintain variety
1:1 - Avoid P4 vertically	Treat as dissonance against bass.	Exception: upper voices
2:1 - Passing dissonance	Step between chord tones allowed.	On weak beats
2:1 - No repeated tones	Movement required against CF note.	Skip or step
2:1 - NCT resolution	Non-harmonic tones resolve stepwise.	Except escape tones
3:1/4:1 - More freedom	More dissonance possible.	Always resolve stepwise
4:1 - Cambiata allowed	Step-leap-step figure.	E-D-B-C pattern
4:1 - Suspensions	Tied notes create dissonance.	Resolve down by step
4-3 suspension	Fourth resolves to third.	Most common
7-6 suspension	Seventh resolves to sixth.	Common in upper voices
9-8 suspension	Ninth resolves to octave.	Strong resolution
2-3 suspension	Bass suspension, resolves up.	Retardation-like
Florid counterpoint	Mix all species freely.	Most musical
Melodic climax	Single high point per phrase.	Not repeated
Leap compensation	Large leap followed by step opposite.	Balance motion

AUGMENTED SIXTH CHORDS

TYPE	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
Augmented 6th interval	♭6 to ♯4. Resolves outward to octave.	A♭-F♯ → G-G
Italian +6 (It+6)	♭6-1-♯4. Three notes. Simplest.	A♭-C-F♯
French +6 (Fr+6)	♭6-1-2-♯4. Four notes. Whole-tone color.	A♭-C-D-F♯
German +6 (Ger+6)	♭6-1-♭3-♯4. Four notes. Enharmonic to V7.	A♭-C-E♭-F♯
Swiss +6	German +6 spelled with ♯4 (Swiss notation).	A♭-C-D♯-F♯
Doubly augmented	Both ♭6 and ♭♭3 approach ♯4.	Rare, extreme chromaticism
Resolution to V	Standard resolution target.	+6 → V → I
Resolution to I6/4	German +6 often resolves through I6/4.	Avoids parallel 5ths
Enharmonic to V7	Ger+6 = V7 of key a tritone away.	A♭-C-E♭-F♯ = A♭7
+6 in major	Borrowed ♭6 from minor.	Chromatic pre-dominant
+6 in minor	Natural scale degree ♭6.	Diatonic to minor

SECONDARY FUNCTIONS

FUNCTION	DEFINITION	EXAMPLE
V7/ii (1 = C)	A7 → Dm. Dominant of supertonic.	Tonicizes ii
V7/iii (1 = C)	B7 → Em. Dominant of mediant.	Tonicizes iii
V7/IV (1 = C)	C7 → F. Dominant of subdominant.	Tonicizes IV
V7/V (1 = C)	D7 → G. Dominant of dominant.	Most common secondary
V7/vi (1 = C)	E7 → Am. Dominant of submediant.	Tonicizes vi
vii°7/ii	C♯°7 → Dm. Leading-tone of ii.	Fully diminished
vii°7/iii	D♯°7 → Em. Leading-tone of iii.	Fully diminished
vii°7/IV	E°7 → F. Leading-tone of IV.	Fully diminished
vii°7/V	F♯°7 → G. Leading-tone of V.	Fully diminished
vii°7/vi	G♯°7 → Am. Leading-tone of vi.	Fully diminished
♭II7 for V7/I	D♭7 → C. Tritone sub of G7.	Shares B-F tritone
♭VI7 for V7/ii	E♭7 → Dm. Tritone sub of A7.	Shares C♯-G tritone
♭VII7 for V7/iii	F7 → Em. Tritone sub of B7.	Shares D♯-A tritone
♭I7 for V7/IV	G♭7 → F. Tritone sub of C7.	Shares E-B♭ tritone
♭II7 for V7/V	A♭7 → G. Tritone sub of D7.	Shares F♯-C tritone
♭III7 for V7/vi	B♭7 → Am. Tritone sub of E7.	Shares G♯-D tritone